Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Stress and strain profiles in the German population.

Clinical observations indicate that people frequently display stress-related behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although numerous studies have been published concerning pandemic-related psychological distress, systematic data on the interrelationships between stress sensitivity, personality, and behavioral characteristics of people are still lacking. In the present cross-sectional online survey study, we applied a German version of the COVID Stress Scales (CSS) and standard psychological questionnaires to systematically identify the complex interplay between stress sensitivity, gender, and personality in the modulation of quality of life and mental health in the German population (N = 1774; age ≥ 16 years). A CSS-based cluster analysis revealed two clusters characterized by higher and lower stress levels. Study participants in each cluster differed significantly with respect to neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, quality of life, depression, and anxiety. Females were significantly overrepresented in the higher stress cluster, while there was an overrepresentation of males in the lower stress cluster. Neuroticism was identified as a risk factor and extraversion as a protective factor for enhanced pandemic-related stress responses. For the first time our data show a taxonomy of factors, which modulate pandemic-related stress sensitivity and warrant consideration as key indicators of quality of life and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. We suggest that our data may advise governmental regulation of pandemic-related public health measures, to optimize quality of life and psychological health in different groups of the population.

COVID-19 stress syndrome in the German general population: Validation of a German version of the COVID Stress Scales.

The COVID Stress Scales (CSS) are a new self-report instrument for multidimensional assessment of psychological stress in the context of the pandemic. The CSS have now been translated and validated in over 20 languages, but a validated German version has not yet been available. Therefore, the aim was to develop a German version of the CSS, to test its factor structure, reliability, and validity, and to compare it with international studies. In an online survey (08/2020-06/2021), N = 1774 individuals from the German general population (71.5% female; Mage = 41.2 years, SD = 14.2) completed the CSS as well as questionnaires on related constructs and psychopathology. After eight weeks, participants were asked to participate again for the purpose of calculating retest reliability (N = 806). For the German version, the 6-factor structure with good model fit (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, RMSEA = 0.06) was confirmed, with the six subscales: Danger, Socio-Economic Consequences, Xenophobia, Contamination, Traumatic Stress, and Compulsive Checking. Internal consistencies ranged from ω = .82-.94 (except Compulsive Checking ω = .70), and retest reliability from rtt = .62-.82. Convergent and discriminant validity were confirmed for the German version. Related constructs such as health anxiety, general xenophobia, obsessive-compulsive behavior, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms correlated moderately with the respective subscale and lower with the other scales. With anxiety and depression, Traumatic Stress showed the strongest correlation. Overall, there was a high degree of agreement in an international comparison. The CSS can help to identify pandemic-related psychological stress and to derive appropriate interventions.